Failure to follow vaccination schedules makes vaccination campaigns less effective because the previously injected vaccine only provides sufficient cover until the next scheduled vaccination (Van Savage et al., 1990 Chifungula, 2015). For example, in Zambia, vaccinations were found to be conducted three months after the scheduled time (Chifungula, 2015). This strategy seems good in theory but difficult in practice because, in many developing countries, vaccination schedules are rarely followed. To effectively control diseases like FMD and CBPP, livestock experts recommend conducting five years of annual or biannual vaccination followed by three years of surveillance during which no single clinical case should be reported (Masiga and Domenech, 1995). Therefore, investing in vaccination programs can save millions of dollars that could be lost in the event of an outbreak. Furthermore, vaccinations against zoonotic diseases do not only reduce financial losses within the livestock sector, but they also contribute to cost savings in the human health sector (Zinsstag et al., 2007). (2010) found that in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, areas without vaccination against Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) incurred significantly higher losses than areas with vaccination. (2006) found that a loss of 30 million Euros could have been avoided by investing only half of the amount to control Contagious Bovine Pleural Pneumonia (CBPP) in 12 African countries. 1 In addition, vaccinations are the only economically viable option for certain diseases because once there is an outbreak, the economic losses are high. Though different strategies such as stamping out, quarantine, movement restrictions, and treatment are implemented to control the outbreaks, vaccinations are the most important disease control measure employed, especially in under-resourced agricultural systems (Knight-Jones and and Rushton, 2013 World Organization for Animal Health -OIE, 1995 Romero et al., 1993 Roeder et al., 2013 Orsel et al., 2005 Taylor et al., 2002). The outbreak of diseases is the most critical problem affecting the production and productivity of the livestock sector in Sub-Saharan African countries (Perry and Randolph, 2003 Vosloo et al., 2002). The problems identified are not only relevant for vaccination programs but are general implementation challenges encountered in developmental programs that involve the distribution of publicly procured inputs. Use of Citizen Report Cards and lobbying political decision markers are some of the mechanisms that farmers can employ to increase their capacity to hold the animal health service providers accountable and demand better services. Building sustainable financial capacity in the overall management of public funds seems essential to deal with the challenge of fund diversion. Some strategies to improve the efficiency of the procurement process were identified, such as increasing the sense of urgency, building staff capacity, using e-procurement and entering into framework contracts with suppliers. The findings also indicate that the delay in the release of funds arises because of a diversion of funds. The study revealed that the complex design of the procurement procedure, the limited capacity of the procuring entity, and a lack of urgency among the actors involved, resulted in the procurement delays. The tool made it possible to develop an understanding of the exact implementation mechanism and to identify the different actors involved, including government officials, private sector companies, and farmers. A novel qualitative research tool called Process Net-Map, which is a visual participatory mapping technique was applied. The goal was to examine in detail why these problems occur and how they are linked to the implementation procedure.

This paper presents an in-depth analysis of these governance challenges, based on a case study of a Livestock Development Animal Health Project in Zambia.

However, such campaigns are difficult to implement due to major governance challenges, such as delays in the procurement of vaccines and the disbursement of funds. Vaccination campaigns are one of the most important strategies to deal with this challenge. The outbreak of livestock diseases in Sub-Saharan African countries is the most critical challenge affecting the development potential of the livestock sector.

Shiffer 2010 netmap